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ANARCHY IN THE U.S
During the late-1800s, anarchy, the belief that all systems of government are immoral and unnecessary, was a serious political movement in the U.S. Following the assassination of President William McKinley by an anarchist in 1901, anarchists were banned from entering the country; nonetheless, the movement remained viable. Emma Goldman, perhaps the best remembered of the anarchists of this period, may have served as a model for Parritt’s mother. Goldman was still quite active in 1912, the year in which The Iceman Cometh is set. But by the time O’NEILL’S TIMES
Today: Discrimination against African Americans is no longer legal or socially acceptable, but many more Blacks than whites suffer from poverty and a lack of education. Affirmative action programs, which have aimed at providing more opportunities for non-whites, are under attack by conservative politicians. wrote The Iceman Cometh in 1939, Goldman had been deported to the Soviet Union and, in 1938; the House of Representatives had set up a committee to investigate so-called un-American activities. The major movements of the radical left — anarchism, socialism, and communism — were not as strong as they had been in previous years.
ANARCHY IN THE U.S
During the late-1800s, anarchy, the belief that all systems of government are immoral and unnecessary, was a serious political movement in the United States. Following the assassination of President William McKinley by an anarchist in 1901, anarchists were banned from entering the country; nonetheless, the movement remained viable. Emma Goldman, perhaps the best remembered of the anarchists of this period, may have served as a model for Parritt’s mother. Goldman was still quite active in 1912, the year in which The Iceman Cometh is set. But by the time O’Neill wrote The Iceman Cometh in 1939, Goldman had been deported to the Soviet Union and, in 1938; the House of Representatives had set up a committee to investigate so-called un-American activities. The major movements of the radical left — anarchism, socialism, and communism — were not as strong as they had been in previous years.
During the early-1930s, the first years of the Depression, with its worsening economic conditions, led many to turn to the radical left for solutions. But by the 1939, when O’Neill wrote The Iceman Cometh, the increasing success of labor unions, the reforms of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal, and the 1938 passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act (which set a minimum wage of forty cents an hour and a maximum workweek of 44 hours) made radical change seem less necessary. In addition, increasing military tension in Europe had begun to command the time and attention of Americans. German leader Adolf Hitler’s 1939 invasion of Poland marked the beginning of World War II.
Although Americans now tend to romanticize World War II as a justifiable war that enjoyed popular support from the beginning, this was not the case in 1939. The radical left opposed U.S. involvement in what they considered an imperialist war. But it was not only the left that had qualms about American involvement. Shortly after Hitler’s invasion of Poland, President Roosevelt announced in a radio broadcast, “This nation remains a neutral nation.” It was not until the United States itself was attacked by Japan two years later—the December 7, 1941, bombing of Pearl Harbor—that America entered the war.
CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY
In 1912, the primary issue for women’s groups was that of suffrage, the right to vote. Women were actively engaged in social issues, particularly in assisting the poor and fighting for temperance, and the prohibition of alcoholism. In order to achieve the reforms they desired, however, women realized that they needed to be able to vote. Another important issue for women was birth control. In 1912, the distribution of birth control information was illegal in the United States. The anarchist Emma Goldman was active in the fight for birth control, which had the potential of giving women the same sexual freedom allowed to men. In 1920, women won the right to vote, and in the decade following that victory, doctors were legally allowed to dispense birth control information. With these successes, many women assumed that their movement was no longer necessary. That and the economic troubles of the Depression made women’s rights much less of an issue by 1939.
In 1912, discrimination against African Americans was widespread. In every southern state, African Americans were denied the right of suffrage. In some states, blacks were prohibited from opening businesses of any kind. In 1909, white northerners and blacks joined together and formed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which fought for racial equality. Nonetheless, tremendous discrimination continued, especially in the South. Many southern African Americans moved north but could often only work as laborers or servants, if they could find work at all. In addition, many whites in the North and South continued to consider blacks as their intellectual and social inferiors. Joe Mott, the only black character in The Iceman Cometh, has himself absorbed this attitude and continually speaks of himself as being white or acting white. He and the other roomers consider this high praise and a superior social position than that afforded to blacks.
By 1939, many blacks had benefited from the reforms of the New Deal. Employment and social discrimination continued, however. In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) denied the singer Marian Anderson permission to sing in Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C., solely because she was black. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt resigned from the DAR in protest and then assisted in making arrangements for Anderson to sing at the Lincoln Memorial instead. This incident helped to cement African American support for the president and first lady, which translated into support for the Democratic Party.
1930s CULTURE
While Americans of the late-1930s were dealing with the harsh realities of the Depression and the approaching war, much of the popular culture of the time provided a means of escape from the bleak reality of daily life. This is perhaps best exemplified by the films of the era. Light entertainers such as Shirley Temple, the Marx Brothers, W. C. Fields, and Mae West were all popular in the 1930s. In 1937, the first full-length animated film, Walt Disney’s Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, was produced. The year 1939 saw the production of the fantasy film The Wizard of Oz. The movie version of Margaret Mitchell’s romantic Gone with the Wind, the most popular novel of the decade, was also produced in 1939. At first, this focus on escapism seems quite at odds with the bleak world of The Iceman Cometh. But the pipe dreams of the roomers in O’Neill’s dark world reflect nothing so much as the decade’s need for an escape from reality.
COMPARE & CONTRAST
1912: Temperance groups work toward the goal of complete prohibition of the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. Eight years later Prohibition becomes the law of the land.
1939: Six years after Prohibition ends in failure, alcoholism continues to be a major social problem. The fledgling group Alcoholics Anonymous, founded in 1935, works to help people overcome what is perceived as a personal foiling.
Today: Alcoholism is now generally viewed as a disease that often has a strong genetic component, but the problem of alcoholism is for from solved. Approximately 18 million Americans are alcoholics and teen drinking is a serious problem.
1912: In spite of a 1901 law prohibiting anarchists from entering the country, the anarchist movement is close to the peak of its popularity in the United States. Socialism and communism are also considered by many to be serious alternatives to capitalism.
1939: The increasing success of labor unions, the reforms of the New Deal, and laws designed to protect workers make the radical left’s criticism of government seem less potent.
Today: The dismantling of the Berlin Wall and the fall of the Soviet Union resulted in a general sense in America that what the radical left offers is no longer a viable alternative. The movements of the radical left still exist, but within the United States, anarchism, communism, and socialism have virtually no popular support.
1912: The women’s movement fights for suffrage (the right to vote) and the right to birth control. Social discrimination and discrimination in employment and education remain strongly in force.
1939: Having won the right to vote and the right to birth control, many believe the women’s movement is no longer necessary. National attention is focused on the economy and the war in Europe.
Today: Women have earned legal rights equal to those of men, but in actual practice, women still face discrimination. Feminists are particularly concerned about the rights of women in non-Western nations.
1912: Discrimination against African Americans is widespread. Many southern Blacks move north but continue to endure poverty and racism.
1939: Some of the reforms of the New Deal benefit African Americans but social and legal discrimination remains.
During the early-1930s, the first years of the Depression, with its worsening economic conditions, led many to turn to the radical left for solutions. But by the 1939, when O’Neill wrote The Iceman Cometh, the increasing success of labor unions, the reforms of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal, and the 1938 passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act (which set a minimum wage of forty cents an hour and a maximum workweek of 44 hours) made radical change seem less necessary. In addition, increasing military tension in Europe had begun to command the time and attention of Americans. German leader Adolf Hitler’s 1939 invasion of Poland marked the beginning of World War II.
Although Americans now tend to romanticize World War II as a justifiable war that enjoyed popular support from the beginning, this was not the case in 1939. The radical left opposed U.S. involvement in what they considered an imperialist war. But it was not only the left that had qualms about American involvement. Shortly after Hitler’s invasion of Poland, President Roosevelt announced in a radio broadcast, “This nation remains a neutral nation.” It was not until the United States itself was attacked by Japan two years later—the December 7, 1941, bombing of Pearl Harbor—that America entered the war.